Cognition - Obsah

CHAPTER ONE: Basic Concepts of Cognitive Psychology 1
Introduction 1
What Is Cognitive Psychology 1
Cognitive Psychology and Related Disciplines 2
Reading: An Example of Human Information Processing 3
Representation and Processing of Knowledge 5
Mental Representation 5
Mental Procedures 10
Characteristics of Human Information Processing 15
Feature Analysis 15
Hierarchical Organization 18
Evidence of Hierarchical Feature Analysis in Reading 19
Bottom-up vs. Top-down Procedures 21
Parallel Processing 23
Models of Word Recognition 24
Logogen Model 24
Hierarchical Models and the Word Superiority Effect 25
Summary 29
Recommended Readings 30

CHAPTER TWO: Attention 33
Introduction 33
Attention and Information Processing 34
Awareness of Unattended Inputs 35
Attention and Memory 36
Mechanisms for Rapid Response 37
Model of Attention 39
Neurological Organization and Attention 39
Alerting 43
Dual-Process Model of Alerting 43
Response of Alerting Mechanisms 45
Preconscious Processing 46
Focusing Attention 47
Detection of Multiple Targets 56
Comparison Level 58
Comparison-Level Bottleneck 59
Activation of Multiple Representations 62
Automatic Activation 62
Conscious Inhibition 63
Executive Selection as Inhibition 65
Processing of Unattended Inputs 65
Capacity and the Maintenance of Attention 67
Automatization of Attention 69
Effect of Practice 69
Stroop Effect 70
Posterior Cortical Injury and the Neglect Syndrome 72
Summary 74
Recommended Readings 75

CHAPTER THREE: Action and Control 77
Introduction 77
Actions 80
Reflexes 80
Discrete Motor Movements 81
Continuous Perceptual Motor Skills 83
Skill Learning 85
The Executive 87
Schemas 88
Divided Attention 89
Monitoring 91
Vigilance 93
Variations ln Executive Control 95
Hypnosis and Meditation 95
Changes in Control with Age 97
Dlsorders of Control 98
Frontal Injury 98
Split-Brain Patients 99
Arousal 101
Yerkes-Dodson Law 102
Changes in Consciousness During the Daily Life Cycle 103
Defects in Arousal 105
Drives and Motives 108
Summary 108
Recommended Readings 109

CHAPTER FOUR: Visuospatial Representation 111
Impaired Perception: A Case Study 111
Visual Perception 112
Retinal-Image Theory 112
Cues for Visual Perception 114
Perception as a Constructive Process 114
Visuospatial Subcodes 115
Perception of Form 117
Bottom-up and Top-down Processing in Visual Perception 125
Artificial Intelligence and Vision 127
Intermodal Conflict 130
Mental Imagery 132
Properties of Mental Imagery 132
Imagery and Perception 136
Spatial Cognition 140
Route and Survey Knowledge 140
Distortions in Geographical Knowledge 141
Visuospatial Representation and the Brain 145
Summary 147
Recommended Readings 148

CHAPTER FIVE: Categorization 149
Introduction 149
Representation of Categories 151
Enumeration 151
Definition by Properties 152
Categories and Memory Organization 157
Organization of the Semantic Code 157
Natural Categories 160
Structure of Color Categories 160
From Focal Colors to Focal Instances 164
From Focal Instances to Prototypes 165
Basic-Level Categories 166
Family Resemblances 167
Abstract Concepts 168
Induction of Visual Categories 169
Investigations of the Prototype Hypothesis 170
Challenges to the Prototype Hypothesis 173
Retrieval and Comparison of Categories 175
Evidence for the Comparison Process 176
Evidence for the Retrieval Process 177
Synthesis of the Comparison and Retrieval Views 178
Summary 179
Recommended Readings 179

CHAPTER SIX: Process of Recognition 181
Introduction 181
Basic Retrieval Model 182
Recognition and Recall 183
How Recognition Operates 184
Memory Comparisons and Recognition 186
Role of Similarity 187
Effects of Context 190
Decision Processes in Recognition 194
Identification and Recall 194
Familiarity 196
Determinants of Recognition Decisions 197
Sensitivity and Criterion in Recognition Judgments 199
Human Recognition Capacities 202
Visual Recognition 203
Other Sense Modalities 204
Summary 205
Recommended Readings 206

CHAPTER SEVEN: Process of Recall 207
Introduction 207
Generation of Responses 209
Associations and Concept Activation 209
Forgetting in the Distractor Paradigm 212
Role of Cues in Generation 217
Secondary Recall Cues 218
Fluctuations in Recall 224
Contextual Effects on Recall 225
Context-Dependent Recall 225
State-Dependent Memory 226
Discriminating Targets from Distractors 227
Summary of Factors Influencing Recall 227
Visual Recall 228
Visual Cues 228
Free Recall 230
Differences Between Verbal and Visual Memory 230
Summary 233
Recommended Readings 234

CHAPTER EIGHT: Reconstruction of Episodes 235
Introduction 235
Reconstruction and Recall 236
Reconstruction vs. Search 236
Use of Rules in Recall 236
Story Recall 237
Story Hierarchies 238
Verbatim vs. Gist Recall 241
Distortions in Story Recall 242
Reconstruction of Life Experiences 244
Constucting Perceptual Memories 244
Recall of Personal Episodes 244
Temporal Memory 246
Memory for Actions, Intentions, and Opinions 249
Retrieval Disorders 251
Tempotary Amnesia 252
Permanent Amnesia 254
Summary 259
Recommended Readings 260

CHAPTER NINE: Incidental Learning 261
Introduction 261
Perceptual Learning 262
Automatic Activation 262
Bootstrap Model 263
Face Recognition 263
Development of Perceptual Skill 264
Incidental-Category Learning 265
Conceptual Encoding 267
Attention and Memory 267
Dynamic Memory Processes 269
Repetition 269
Proactive Interference 273
Sequence Learning 277
Memory and Aging 278
Retention 278
Encoding 281
Episodic Encoding and Retention 282
Factors Influencing Encoding 282
Understanding and Learning 287
Retention of Complex Events 290
Anterograde Amnesia 292
Diencephalic Amnesia: Korsakoff's Syndrome 293
Hippocampal Amnesia 298
Emotion and Encoding 300
Summary 301
Recommended Readings 301

CHAPTER TEN: Mnemonics and Memory Skill 303
Introduction 303
Natural Mnemonic Strategies 304
Rehearsal 304
Imagery 311
Instructions to Organize 313
Specialized Mnemonic Strategies 314
Chunking 315
Natural-Language Mediation 318
Semantic Elaboration 318
Serial-Order Mnemonics 319
Detrimental Effects of Mnemonic Strategies 321
Outlining and Hierarchical Organization 323
Minds of the Mnemonists 325
Lighting Calculator 326
Mnemonist V. P. 327
Mnemonist S. 328
Normal and Expert Memory 330
Summary 331
Recommended Readings 332

CHAPTER ELEVEN: Reasoning and Decision Making 333
Introduction 333
Descriptive vs. Normative Models 333
Deduction vs. Induction 335
Deductive Reasoning 336
Validity vs. Truth 338
Transitive Inferences Based on Linear Orderings 339
Evaluating Conditional Rules 342
Heuristics of Human Judgment 346
Similarity Judgments 347
Representativeness 350
Availability 355
Analogical Reasoning 357
Simulation Heuristic 360
Heuristics vs. Statistics 361
Summary 361
Recommended Readings 362

CHAPTER TWELVE: Problem Solving and Creativity 365
Introduction 365
Problem Solving: Basic Definitions 365
Problem-Solving Process: Overview 366
Well-Defined vs. Ill-Defined Problems 368
Problem Representations in Chimpanzees and Humans 370
Process of Problem Solving 371
Forming an Initial Representation 371
Planning a Potential Solution 375
Reformulating Problem Representations 382
Executing a Solution Plan 386
Expertise in Problem Solving 387
Expertise in Chess 387
Expertise in Other Domains 392
Blocks That Hinder Problem Solving 394
Problem-Solving Set 394
Functional Fixedness 396
Productive Thinking 398

Analyzing Problem-Solving Behavior 399
Protocol Analysis 399
Computer Simulation of Problem Solving 404
Creative Thinking 408
Talent 408
Creative Process 410
Problem Solving and the Creative Process 416
Summary 417
Recommended Readings 417

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: Language and Hemispheric Specialization 419
Introduction 419
Origin of Lateralization 420
Overview of Language Processing 421
Perception of Speech 422
A Look at the Speech Input 422
Consonant and Syllable Perception: Segmentation of the Speech Signal 424
Speech Perception and the Brain 426
Top-down Processing of Speech 428
Speech Perception by Computer 431
Lateralization, Attention, and Action 432
Split-Brain Patients 432
Hemispheric Control in Split-Brain Patients 435
Hemispheric Control in People with Normal Brains 437
Language and Handedness 438
Hemispheric Development after Birth 440
Hemispheric Specialization and Language Acquisition 441
Consequences of Atypical Organization 442
Summary 443
Recommended Readings 444

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: Language and Its Acquisition 445
Introduction 445
Nature of Human Language 445
Language Functions 445
Natural Animal Communication Systems 446
Conversations with Chimpanzees 448
Language Structure 449
Language Acquisition 451
First Speech Sounds 451
Making Sense of Adult Speech 452
Role of the Child in Language Acquisition 453
FirstWords 455
First Sentences 457
Invention of Syntax 458
Complexity of Adult Syntax 461
Summary 462
Recommended Readings 463

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: Language Processing 465
Introduction 465
Language Comprehension 466
Steps in the Comprehension Process 466
Lexical Access 467
Constituent Processing 467
Comprehensian Difficu1ty 471
Comprehensian and Prior Knowledge 473
Reading 475
Overview of the Reading Process 475
Dyslexia 477
Aphasia 478
Types of Aphasia 479
Anterior Aphasia 480
Posterior Aphasia 485
Summary 487
Recommended Readings 488

BIBLIOGRAPHY 491

INDEX 544